Volcanoes and Earthquakes Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Volcanoes and Earthquakes - Research Paper Example Earthquakes have caused widespread damage to human life over the years. There have been earthquakes that have wiped away generations, cities; only to be found later by geologists and historians. With the advanced technology, it has become easier to measure the magnitude and the origin of the earthquake with immense accuracy. Predicting earthquakes is still a mystery and they always catch the human race by surprise.Earthquakes are caused by the shifting of tectonic plates that are present under the Earth’s surface. The ground we consider rock solid, is made up of plates that constantly keep shifting, occasionally shifting rapidly, causing earthquakes in that region. This movement of plate’s releases stress along the geologic faults. These fault lines are considered the boundaries between two plates. It is along these fault lines that earthquakes occur. Interestingly, Earthquakes can also be caused by human activity such as mine blasts and nuclear testing. The epicenter b eing the exact point on the earth’s surface, under which at the hypocenter is present; hypocenter being the exact point where the movement took place (Caroll, 1997). The thought of volcanoes, brings a mountain with erupting lava in our minds. Volcanoes are almost always associated with fascinating destruction of nature and their blinding rage of destroying everything that comes in their way. However, geologically, a volcano is any opening on the planet’s surface, from which the molten lava can make its way to the surface. From fissure vents to submarine volcanoes; all openings in the earth crust the spew out lava are termed as volcanoes. There is classification based on the kind and composition of lava that comes out of the fissures or openings (Sengupta, 2007). Volcanoes are also classified on the basis of their activity; they are active, dormant or extinct. Active volcanoes erupt regularly with many eruptions scripted in the human history; these eruptions may be mont hs apart, years apart or centuries apart. Dormant volcanoes are the ones who have been quiet (no eruptions) for a long period of time, with no written records of their activity until the day the activity starts again. Extinct volcanoes, as the name implies, are the volcanoes that were active some time but have no activity happening as there is no lava supply (Carol, 1997). Volcanoes and Earthquakes: Relationship? The relationship between the volcanoes and earthquakes is pretty significant. On the face of it, there might not be enough evidence, however, when one studies closely it is evident that one of these surely can trigger the other (Rafferty, 2010). Earthquakes generally occur at tectonic plates and most of the eruptions occur in these volcanic regions only. The movement is caused by

Social Sciences Essay Example for Free

Social Sciences Essay 1. Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. They are gathered by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research problem. Secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and have been processed statistically. These are collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand (Polonsky Waller, 2005; Kothari, 2005). Some of the disadvantages of using a newspaper or magazine article as secondary source are doubts in the reliability, credibility and accuracy of data as sources may not be known, and the obsolescence of data as well (Summers Johnson-Morgan, 2005). Primary and secondary data alone are not sufficient. They should be both used in research because secondary data can be lacking something that only primary data can provide (Groucutt, Leadley, Forsyth, 2004). 2. Television broadcasts such as news are not totally valid as there is a tendency, especially in programs aimed at a wide public, to oversimplify data. News normally offers one set of secondary data. It would be a better practice to compare data from different sources (Walliman, 2006). The questionnaire, as a means for collecting primary data, should have minimal errors in its design in order to minimize bias in reporting and to maximize the likelihood of generating information that is reliable and valid (Amedeo, Golledge, Stimson, 2008). A systematic research design is aimed to ensure that appropriate issues are taken into account. It provides the mechanism by which research processes and practices can be assessed. The research design lays the foundation for a sound hypothesis describing the interrelationship of variables and providing the researcher with a baseline from which to work. A good research design eliminates ambiguity in concepts, thus ensuring construct validity. The actual design of the research process ensures that no other variables can affect the study, hence enhancing internal validity. The research design also provides control to unwanted variables that may arise in the conduct of the research in order to uphold its external validity. Statistical tests are used as instruments to verify the validity of the hypothesis. Hence, if statistical information is wrong, the hypothesis will be invalid (Black, 1999). References Amedeo, D. , Golledge, R. G. , Stimson, R. J. (2008). Person-Environment-Behavior Research: Investigating Activities and Experiences in Spaces and Environments. New York: Guilford Press. Black, T. R. (1999). Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics. California: SAGE Publishing. Groucutt, J. , Leadley, P. , Forsyth, P. (2004). Marketing: Essential Principles, New Realities. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Kothari, C. R. (2005). Research Methodology: Methods Techniques. New Delhi: New Age Publishers. Polonsky, M. J. , Waller, D. S. (2005). Designing and Managing a Research Project: A Business Students Guide. California: SAGE Publishing. Summers, J. Johnson-Morgan, M. (2005). Sports Marketing. Ontario: Nelson Thomson Learning. Walliman, N. S. R. (2006). Social Research Methods. California: SAGE Publishing.

Essay --

Introduction Trust is a very important concept in accounting. According to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA): â€Å"Accounting is a service activity. Its function is to provide quantitative information, primarily financial in nature, about economic entities that is intended to be useful in making economic decisions, in making reasoned choices among alternative courses of action.† These economic decisions are made by companies, stockholders, consumer, and many other parties. These decisions have to do with money, therefore directly impact the lives of everyone who puts their trust in accountants to paint an accurate financial picture on which these parties make their decisions. However, sometimes it can be beneficial to one party to paint an inaccurate picture, or in other words, report false financial information. This is where accounting scandals come into play. Sometimes big companies use accounting reports to lie about their finances to keep making money. O ne very notable and infamous instance where such an accounting scandal occurred was with Enron from the late 1990s until the end of 2001. Background information Enron Corporation was born in 1985. The government had started deregulation of natural gas pipelines, and Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth, two existing companies merged to create Enron. The deregulation of the gas pipelines however, caused Enron to not have exclusive rights to pipelines and because of the merger, Enron had a lot of debt. To keep itself afloat the company needed a new business strategy to get cash flowing and profits coming in. Kenneth Lay was the CEO of Enron at that point, and he hired Jeffery Skilling, who dealt with asset and liability management, as a consultant to co... ...of the largest accounting firms in America, in charge of auditing Enron then became involved, and destroyed any of Enron’s documents that could prove that they were breaking the law. Consequences and Conclusion In the end, Enron could not keep itself afloat once it turned to fraud. Shareholders lost $74 billion, thousands of employees and investors lost their retirement accounts, and many employees lost their jobs. Lives were ruined. Lay died before serving time. Skilling got 24 years in prison. Fastow agreed to become an informant and therefore got less time in prison. The company filed for bankruptcy. Arthur Andersen was found guilty of falsifying Enron’s account and destroying evidence, and the firm failed. People still talk about the Enron scandal today, and accounting practices are now held to a higher standard in order to avoid a catastrophe like this again. Essay -- Introduction Trust is a very important concept in accounting. According to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA): â€Å"Accounting is a service activity. Its function is to provide quantitative information, primarily financial in nature, about economic entities that is intended to be useful in making economic decisions, in making reasoned choices among alternative courses of action.† These economic decisions are made by companies, stockholders, consumer, and many other parties. These decisions have to do with money, therefore directly impact the lives of everyone who puts their trust in accountants to paint an accurate financial picture on which these parties make their decisions. However, sometimes it can be beneficial to one party to paint an inaccurate picture, or in other words, report false financial information. This is where accounting scandals come into play. Sometimes big companies use accounting reports to lie about their finances to keep making money. O ne very notable and infamous instance where such an accounting scandal occurred was with Enron from the late 1990s until the end of 2001. Background information Enron Corporation was born in 1985. The government had started deregulation of natural gas pipelines, and Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth, two existing companies merged to create Enron. The deregulation of the gas pipelines however, caused Enron to not have exclusive rights to pipelines and because of the merger, Enron had a lot of debt. To keep itself afloat the company needed a new business strategy to get cash flowing and profits coming in. Kenneth Lay was the CEO of Enron at that point, and he hired Jeffery Skilling, who dealt with asset and liability management, as a consultant to co... ...of the largest accounting firms in America, in charge of auditing Enron then became involved, and destroyed any of Enron’s documents that could prove that they were breaking the law. Consequences and Conclusion In the end, Enron could not keep itself afloat once it turned to fraud. Shareholders lost $74 billion, thousands of employees and investors lost their retirement accounts, and many employees lost their jobs. Lives were ruined. Lay died before serving time. Skilling got 24 years in prison. Fastow agreed to become an informant and therefore got less time in prison. The company filed for bankruptcy. Arthur Andersen was found guilty of falsifying Enron’s account and destroying evidence, and the firm failed. People still talk about the Enron scandal today, and accounting practices are now held to a higher standard in order to avoid a catastrophe like this again.

Science vs. Religion: How were we created? Essays -- essays research p

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea of creation is one of the most controversial issues we have today. Your age, background, religion, and beliefs are the main characters that effect what you believe created the world. Science believes several theories on the creation but the most accepted is the Big Bang Theory. Religion has their own views on creation, Christians believe that God created the world, Islamic believe that Allah created man but in steps, and Mayans believe that the Heart of Sky created man. I plan on discussing each view in detail and then you the reader may make your decision on what you feel are true.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Big Bang Theory is the scientific theory to explain the beginning of the world and of man. Scientists have discovered that there was a beginning of time, nothing before and what we call our universe after. According to the theory the universe started as small, dense, and extremely hot. After what they call the Big Bang, the universe cooled and expanded. An example that many scientists use is a balloon. The say that is starts with the popping of a balloon, releasing all its contents. Then the balloon continues to inflate. I would compare it to a raw noodle turning into a cooled, cooked noodle. The noodle was dense and extremely hot into an expanded, cool noodle. There are several evidences that support this theory, the first is that there was a beginning, second according to Hubble’s law the galaxies and stars are moving away from us. Hubble’s law would support the theory of expansion and that the universe was once compact. Another piece of eviden ce is the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation that would support that the universe was very hot at one time. The last piece of evidence would be that large quantities of Hydrogen and Helium are found in the universe and supports the models of Big Bang. The Big Bang Theory is the most popular and possible theory for creation, it is not the only one.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Christians view creation as clear and simple, God created the world in six days. According to the bible, â€Å"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth,† (Genesis 1:1). â€Å"And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day,† (Genesis 1:31). The main evidence to support this theory is the Bible. If you believe i... ...ases the animals into the wooden people’s homes. The animals decide they were abused by the wooden people and are going to do the same to them. They were chased off into the forest after their faces being crushed and then turned into monkeys. Heart-of-Sky eventually creates humans from corn, maize. This story speaks many truths but does not explain the in detail how the universe was created, as the theories I spoke of earlier do.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are millions of theories traveling around our world today. It is hard to say which ones are true and which are not. It is too hard to say about a time when there was no life. I don’t believe we will ever really know how we were created; we can only discover more evidence and more theories. I hope that you are more knowledgeable about creation now after reading this paper. Works Cited Holy Bible, King James version. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc: 1979. Lederman, Leon. The God Particle : If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question? Delta Publishing; 1994. Tedlock, Dennis. Popol Vuh, a translation. www.jaguar-sun.com/popolvuh.html Shah, Zia. The Islamic view of Creation. www.ldolphin.org/islamcreat.html

Finding Forrester Essay

Finding Forrester was directed by Gus Van Sant and released in 2000. The film was interesting. It showed you that anything is possible; you just need to put in hard work and effort. Gus Van Sant shows us that it does not matter where you are from, anything is possible. Jamal Wallace is an African-American boy from the Bronx who is secretly highly intelligent but he does not want anybody knowing because it will ruin his reputation at school, an example of this is when Jamal’s teacher asks him to recite a famous poem that he knows, Jamal lies and says he does not know it. William Forrester is an old, Caucasian man who is an alcoholic and has written a famous book. Forrester spends his days in his apartment because he is scared of the public and society. The film focuses on the theme of stereotyping. A stereotype is â€Å"a widely held but fixed and over simplified image or idea of a particular type of person/thing. † –Oxford Dictionary. Stereotyping is shown throughout the film, some examples of stereotyping in the film are when Jamal is at his new school and writes an amazing paper. His teacher, Crawford, does not believe Jamal wrote the paper because he is a black boy from the Bronx who is a fantastic basketball player. There is a stereotype about African Americans being good at sports (especially basketball), but here the black character is also very smart and interested in things besides sports. In fact, Jamal throws a basketball game so no one thinks he is just another black boy only good for basketball. Another example of stereotyping in Finding Forrester is Claire. Claire is Jamal’s first friend at his new school and we see right away that she does not discriminate but is a victim of stereotyping herself. Claire’s father is the man responsible for making the school for boys and girls so students see her as spoiled and think the only reason she got accepted to school is because of her father but she is actually a very bright girl. Basketball is an important symbol in the film, which symbolizes that even though Jamal is a great basketball player, it does not mean he is not smart. This is shown in the film when Jamal gets a chance to play basketball at his new school. Basketball represents the real world; it’s struggles, relationships, and competition. There are also some more very important symbols in Finding Forrester. The books in William Forrester’s apartment represent escapism, insulation from the real world, and the world of intellect. And the window which William Forrester watches Jamal and his friends play basketball is literally a window into the real world. Forrester watches the world pass by him though that window. The characters Jamal Wallace (Robert Brown) and William Forester (Sean Connery) form a friendship through their mutual interest in writing. This all started when Jamal and his friends notice an old man, William Forrester, watching them play basketball through his window. They notice that this old man has never left his house and actually gets grocery, mail, and clothes delivered to him. One day Jamal’s friends dared him to go into Forrester’s apartment and to take something from the apartment to prove he was actually in there. While in the apartment, Jamal gets frightened by Forrester and runs out but little did Jamal know that as he was leaving he left his backpack full of all his secret journals. After Jamal talks to his friends about his experience they go out to play basketball and Forrester drops Jamal’s backpack out the window. When Jamal opens it up he finds that Forrester has gone through and corrected and critiqued every page of every journal. Furious, Jamal takes his journals back to Forrester to ask why he would do this. After days of trying to talk to Forrester, Jamal and Forrester come to an agreement that Forrester will help Jamal with his writing. They teach each other about life. Jamal helps Forrester get back into society without being scared. Forrester teaches Jamal that is does not matter where you come from, if you are intelligent, take advantage of that and embrace your great talent. The movie Finding Forrester was a good, quality movie with a great theme and moral. In this movie Jamal, an African American basketball player and student proves that it does not matter where you come from, or what color your skin is, if you are intelligent to need to let that talent shine. And William Forrester, an old, washed up writer gets a new look on life because a brilliant boy has faith in him. Together, William and Jamal fight through racism and stereotyping. â€Å"Dear Jamal, Someone I once knew wrote that we walk away from our dreams afraid that we may fail or worse yet, afraid we may succeed. You need to know that while I knew so very early that you would realize your dreams, I never imagined I would once again realize my own. Seasons change young man, and while I may have waited until the winter of my life, to see the things I’ve seen this past year, there is no doubt I would have waited too long, had it not been for you. † –William Forrester; Forrester’s letter to Jamal.

9 Common Types of Fantasy Characters (With Examples)

9 Common Types of Fantasy Characters (With Examples) 9 Common Types of Fantasy Characters (With Examples) When you think of fantasy, your mind might drift to enchanted settings and the magical systems that govern them. And while it’s hard not to marvel at the brand-new worlds that authors are able to conjure, it’s the people and creatures that inhabit those worlds who claim readers’ emotional investment.This list covers nine of the most common types of fantasy characters. Don’t forget to scope out the 80+ examples of our favorite fantasy characters from popular books and movies. From the hero to the mentor, these characters are staples of the #fantasy genre 1. The HeroThere is no fantasy story without a Hero and a quest that needs undertaking. This is their fantasy world, and we’re just living in it (for a time). While people often think of Joseph Campbell’s popular Hero’s Journey when it comes to fantasy story structures, the Hero can take many different forms (they can even be an anti-hero!), whether or not the story resembles Campbell’s model. The Hero might relish in their role, like Conan the Barbarian, or they may be a reluctant leader in the story’s narrative, like Bilbo Baggins (initially). Indeed, the nature of the Hero will largely depend on the particular subgenre of fantasy you're reading/writing.(image: HBO)Example:Tyrion Lannister is an interesting character because of his grey shades. He is part of a family of villains, and out of familial obligation, he spends the first few books acting in the best interest of Lannister House. However, acting in their best interest often requires commit ting villainous deeds. So while readers might be able to empathize with Tyrion’s desire to protect - and fit in with - his family, they still recognize many of his actions as â€Å"bad.†More Reluctant Villains:Draco Malfoy (the Harry Potter series)Regent (Worm)The Henchman (Coraline)Jeremiah Colt (The Zombie Knight)The Angarak people (The Belgariad)Theon Greyjoy (Game of Thrones)Count Dracula (Blood for Dracula) 9 common types of #fantasy characters - and 80 examples of the best And that's a wrap on the nine most common types of fantasy character archetypes that you'll encounter in every book! If you'd like to read more about the genre, check out some of the following magical posts:Best Fantasy Writing Prompts13 Kick-Ass Tips For Writing FantasyA Century of Fantasy: How the Genre's Changed Since the 1920sYou can also find all these characters in the following fantasy books, lists courtesy of the Reedsy Discovery blog:The 100 Best Fantasy Series of All TimeThe 30 Best YA Fantasy Books for Teens60 Best Fantasy Books of All Time20 Addictive Urban Fantasy BooksThe 12 Best Epic Fantasy Books Like Game of ThronesWho are some of your all-time favorite fantasy characters? Let us know in the comments below!

Industrial Revolution in Western Europe Essay Example

Industrial Revolution in Western Europe Essay Example Industrial Revolution in Western Europe Essay Industrial Revolution in Western Europe Essay The eighteenth century witnessed the arrival of widespread industrialisation in Western Europe. Many countries underwent the gradual transition from a predominantly agrarian society to industrial development on an extensive scale and the introduction of the modern factory system. Great Britain was thefirst European country to experience this profound economic and social transformation and it can be labelled the innovator to the process of industrialisation, the stimulus to development. Why was Britain at the forefront of the progression to advanced society David Landes (1969) states that there was a, piling up of various factors which triggered off a chain reaction. It is indicated that Britain, in this period of time, was propitious for invention and expansion due to a number of determinants, such as, agricultural circumstances, population growth and hence availability of labour, capital and raw materials, improvements in transport, growth in overseas trade, willingness of capitalists to invest, non-conformists, its political system and the recently studied phenomena of proto-industrialisation. By no means is there an order of importance, as each and every one of these factors contributed to Britains ability and facility to industrialise there existed a fertile soil in which the seed of industrialisation could grow. English agriculture between the late seventeenth century and mid-nineteenth century is commonly regarded as a huge success with respect to the economy as a whole. Some believe that agriculture should be sufficiently developed so that there is a release in labour and resources for modern industry to transpire. Others believe that a revolution in farming techniques is an essential prerequisite to the modernisation of manufacturing and transport industries.

Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Essays

Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Essays Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Paper Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Paper Essay Topic: Burial Rites Poes Short Stories â€Å"Pre-Socratic† is the look normally used to depict those Grecian minds who lived and wrote between 600 and 400 B. C. It was the Pre-Socratics who attempted to happen cosmopolitan rules which would explicate the natural universe from its beginnings to man’s topographic point in it. Although Socrates died in 399 B. C. . the term â€Å"Pre-Socratic† indicates non so much a chronological bound. but instead an mentality or scope of involvements. an mentality attacked by both Protagoras ( a Sophist ) and Socrates. because natural doctrine was worthless when compared with the hunt for the â€Å"good life. †To give the Presocratic minds their full due would necessitate an article of encyclopaedic range. Given that. I have decided to name a figure of sites on single Presocratic minds. Anaximander1. Life and SourcesThe history of written Greek doctrine starts with Anaximander of Miletus in Asia Minor. a fellow-citizen of Thales. He was the first who dared to compose a treatise in prose. which has been called traditionally On Nature. This book has been lost. although it likely was available in the library of the Lyceum at the times of Aristotle and his replacement Theophrastus. It is said that Apollodorus. in the 2nd century BCE. stumbled upon a transcript of it. possibly in the celebrated library of Alexandria. Recently. grounds has appeared that it was portion of the aggregation of the library of Taormina in Sicily. where a fragment of a catalogue has been found. on which Anaximander’s name can be read. Merely one fragment of the book has come down to us. quoted by Simplicius ( after Theophrastus ) . in the 6th century AD. It is possibly the most celebrated and most discussed phrase in the history of doctrine. We besides know really small of Anaximander’s life. He is said to hold led a mission that founded a settlement called Apollonia on the seashore of the Black Sea. He besides likely introduced the gnomon ( a perpendicular sun-dial ) into Greece and erected one in Sparta. So he seems to hold been a much-traveled adult male. which is non amazing. as the Milesians were known to be brave crewmans. It is besides reported that he displayed grave manners and wore grandiloquent garments. Most of the information on Anaximander comes from Aristotle and his student Theophrastus. whose book on the history of doctrine was used. excerpted. and quoted by many other writers. the alleged doxographers. before it was lost. Sometimes. in these texts words or looks appear that can with some certainty be ascribed to Anaximander himself. Relatively many testimonies. about one tierce of them. hold to make with astronomical and cosmogonic inquiries. Hermann Diels and Walter Kranz have edited the doxography ( A ) and the bing texts ( B ) of the Presocratic philosophers in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker. Berlin 1951-19526. ( A citation like â€Å"DK 12A17? agencies: â€Å"Diels/Kranz. Anaximander. doxographical study no. 17? ) . | 2. The â€Å"Boundless† as Principle Harmonizing to Aristotle and Theophrastus. the first Grecian philosophers were looking for the â€Å"origin† or â€Å"principle† ( the Greek word â€Å"arche† has both significances ) of all things. Anaximander is said to hold identified it with â€Å"the Boundless† or â€Å"the Unlimited† ( Grecian: â€Å"apeiron. † that is. â€Å"that which has no boundaries† ) . Already in ancient times. it is complained that Anaximander did non explicate what he meant by â€Å"the Boundless. † More late. writers have disputed whether the Boundless should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without bounds. or possibly as that which has no makings. or as that which is unlimited. Some bookmans have even defended the significance â€Å"that which is non experienced. † by associating the Grecian word â€Å"apeiron† non to â€Å"peras† ( â€Å"boundary. † â€Å"limit† ) . but to â€Å"perao† ( †Å"to experience. † â€Å"to apperceive† ) . The suggestion. nevertheless. is about resistless that Grecian doctrine. by doing the Boundless into the rule of all things. has started on a high degree of abstraction. On the other manus. some have pointed out that this usage of â€Å"apeiron† is untypical for Grecian idea. which was occupied with bound. symmetricalness and harmoniousness. The Pythagoreans placed the boundless ( the â€Å"apeiron† ) on the list of negative things. and for Aristotle. excessively. flawlessness became aligned with bound ( Grecian: â€Å"peras† ) . and therefore â€Å"apeiron† with imperfectness. Therefore. some writers suspect eastern ( Persian ) influence on Anaximander’s thoughts. Anaximenes ( d. 528 BCE ) Harmonizing to the lasting beginnings on his life. Anaximenes flourished in the mid sixth century BCE and died around 528. He is the 3rd philosopher of the Milesian School of doctrine. so named because like Thales and Anaximander. Anaximenes was an dweller of Miletus. in Ionia ( ancient Greece ) . Theophrastus notes that Anaximenes was an associate. and perchance a pupil. of Anaximander’s. Anaximenes is best known for his philosophy that air is the beginning of all things. In this manner. he differed with his predecessors like Thales. who held that H2O is the beginning of all things. and Anaximander. who thought that all things came from an unspecified boundless material. 2. Doctrine of Change Given his philosophy that all things are composed of air. Anaximenes suggested an interesting qualitative history of natural alteration: [ Air ] differs in kernel in conformity with its rareness or denseness. When it is thinned it becomes fire. while when it is condensed it becomes air current. so cloud. when still more condensed it becomes H2O. so Earth. so stones. Everything else comes from these. ( DK13A5 ) Influence on later Doctrine Anaximenes’ theory of consecutive alteration of affair by rarefaction and condensation was influential in ulterior theories. It is developed by Heraclitus ( DK22B31 ) . and criticized by Parmenides ( DK28B8. 23-24. 47-48 ) . Anaximenes’ general theory of how the stuffs of the universe arise is adopted by Anaxagoras ( DK59B16 ) . even though the latter has a really different theory of affair. Both Melissus ( DK30B8. 3 ) and Plato ( Timaeus 49b-c ) see Anaximenes’ theory as supplying a common-sense account of alteration. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the footing of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the cardinal construct in a theory of diseases. By supplying cosmogonic histories with a theory of alteration. Anaximenes separated them from the kingdom of mere guess and made them. at least in construct. scientific theories capable of proving. Thales of Miletus ( c. 620 BCE – c. 546 BCE ) The ancient Greek philosopher Thales was born in Miletus in Greek Ionia. Aristotle. the major beginning for Thales’s doctrine and scientific discipline. identified Thales as the first individual to look into the basic rules. the inquiry of the arising substances of affair and. hence. as the laminitis of the school of natural doctrine. Thales was interested in about everything. look intoing about all countries of cognition. doctrine. history. scientific discipline. mathematics. technology. geographics. and political relations. He proposed theories to explicate many of the events of nature. the primary substance. the support of the Earth. and the cause of alteration. Thales was much involved in the jobs of uranology and provided a figure of accounts of cosmogonic events which traditionally involved supernatural entities. His oppugning attack to the apprehension of celestial phenomena was the beginning of Grecian uranology. Thales’ hypotheses were new and bold. and in liberating phenomena from reverent intercession. he paved the manner towards scientific enterprise. He founded the Milesian school of natural doctrine. developed the scientific method. and initiated the first western enlightenment. A figure of anecdotes is closely connected to Thales’ probes of the universe. When considered in association with his hypotheses they take on added significance and are most informative. Thales was extremely esteemed in ancient times. and a missive cited by Diogenes Laertius. and purporting to be from Anaximenes to Pythagoras. advised that all our discourse should get down with a mention to Thales ( D. L. II. 4 ) . 1. The Hagiographas of Thales Doubts have ever existed about whether Thales wrote anything. but a figure of ancient studies recognition him with Hagiographas. Simplicius ( Diels. Dox. p. 475 ) specifically attributed to Thales writing of the alleged Nautical Star-guide. Diogenes Laertius raised uncertainties about genuineness. but wrote that ‘according to others [ Thales ] wrote nil but two treatises. one On the Solstice and one On the Equinox‘ ( D. L. I. 23 ) . Lobon of Argus asserted that the Hagiographas of Thales amounted to two hundred lines ( D. L. I. 34 ) . and Plutarch associated Thales with sentiments and histories expressed in poetry ( Plutarch. De Pyth. or. 18. 402 Tocopherol ) . Hesychius. recorded that ‘ [ Thales ] wrote on heavenly affairs in heroic poetry. on the equinox. and much else’ ( DK. 11A2 ) . Callimachus credited Thales with the sage advice that sailing masters should voyage by Ursa Minor ( D. L. I. 23 ) . advice which may hold been in authorship. Diogenes references a poet. Choerilus. who declared that ‘ [ Thales ] was the first to keep the immortality of the soul’ ( D. L. I. 24 ) . and in De Anima. Aristotle’s words ‘from what is recorded about [ Thales ] ‘ . indicate that Aristotle was working from a written beginning. Diogenes recorded that ‘ [ Thales ] seems by some histories to hold been the first to analyze uranology. the first to foretell occultations of the Sun and to repair the solstices ; so Eudemus in his History of Astronomy. It was this which gained for him the esteem of Xenophanes and Herodotus and the notice of Heraclitus and Democritus’ ( D. L. I. 23 ) . Eudemus who wrote a History of Astronomy. and besides on geometry and divinity. must be considered as a possible beginning for the hypotheses of Thales. The information provided by Diogenes is the kind of stuff which he would hold included in his History of Astronomy. and it is possible that the rubrics On the Solst ice. and On the Equinox were available to Eudemus. Xenophanes. Herodotus. Heraclitus and Democritus were familiar with the work of Thales. and may hold had a work by Thales available to them. A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each twelvemonth when the Sun reaches its highest place in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole. The word solstice is derived from the Latin colloidal suspension ( Sun ) and sistere ( to stand still ) . because at the solstices. the Sun bases still in decline ; that is. the seasonal motion of the Sun’s way ( as seen from Earth ) comes to a halt before change by reversaling way. The solstices. together with the equinoxes. are connected with the seasons. In many civilizations the solstices grade either the beginning or the center of winter and summer. The term solstice can besides be used in a broader sense. as the day of the month ( twenty-four hours ) when this occurs. The twenty-four hours of the solstice is either the â€Å"longest twenty-four hours of the year† ( in summer ) or the â€Å"shortest twenty-four hours of the year† ( in winter ) for any topographic point on Earth. because the length of clip between dawn and sunset on that twenty-four hours is the annual upper limit or lower limit for that topographic point. Proclus recorded that Thales was followed by a great wealth of geometricians. most of whom remain as honoured names. They commence with Mamercus. who was a student of Thales. and include Hippias of Elis. Pythagoras. Anaxagoras. Eudoxus of Cnidus. Philippus of Mende. Euclid. and Eudemus. a friend of Aristotle. who wrote histories of arithmetic. of uranology. and of geometry. and many lesser known name s. It is possible that Hagiographas of Thales were available to some of these work forces. Any records which Thales may hold kept would hold been an advantage in his ain work. This is particularly true of mathematics. of the day of the months and times determined when repairing the solstices. the places of stars. and in fiscal minutess. It is hard to believe that Thales would non hold written down the information he had gathered in his travels. peculiarly the geometry he investigated in Egypt and his measurement of the tallness of the pyramid. his hypotheses about nature. and the cause of alteration. Proclus acknowledged Thales as the inventor of a figure of specific theorems ( A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid’s Elements 65. 8-9 ; 250. 16-17 ) . This suggests that Eudemus. Proclus’s beginning had before him the written records of Thales’s finds. How did Thales ‘prove’ his theorems if non in written words and studies? The plants On the Solstice. On the Equinox. which were attributed to Thales ( D. L. I. 23 ) . and the ‘Nautical Star usher. to which Simplicius referred. may hold been beginnings for the History of Astronomy of Eudemus ( D. L. I. 23 ) . Pythagoras ( c. 570- c. 495 BCE ) The presocratic Greek philosopher Pythagoras must hold been one of the world’s greatest individuals. but he wrote nil. and it is difficult to state how much of the philosophy we know as Pythagorean is due to the laminitis of the society and how much is subsequently development. It is besides difficult to state how much of what we are told about the life of Pythagoras is trusty ; for a mass of fable gathered around his name at an early day of the month. Sometimes he is represented as a adult male of scientific discipline. and sometimes as a sermonizer of mysterious philosophies. and we might be tempted to see one or other of those characters as entirely historical. The truth is that there is no demand to reject either of the traditional positions. The brotherhood of mathematical mastermind and mysticism is common plenty. Originally from Samos. Pythagoras founded at Kroton ( in southern Italy ) a society which was at one time a spiritual community and a scientific school. Such a organic structure was bound to excite green-eyed monster and misgiving. and we hear of many battles. Pythagoras himself had to fly from Kroton to Metapontion. where he died. It is stated that he was a adherent of Anaximander. his uranology was the natural development of Anaximander’s. Besides. the manner in which the Pythagorean geometry developed besides bears informant to its descent from that of Miletos. The great job at this day of the month was the duplicate of the square. a job which gave rise to the theorem of the square on the hypotenuse. normally known still as the Pythagorean proposition ( Euclid. I. 47 ) . If we were right in presuming that Thales worked with the old 3:4:5 trigon. the connexion is obvious. Pythagoras argued that there are three sorts of work forces. merely as there are three categories of aliens who come to the Olympic Games. The lowest consists of those who come to purchase and sell. and following above them are those who come to vie. Best of all are those who merely come to look on. Work force may be classified consequently as lovers of wisdom. lovers of award. and lovers of addition. That seems to connote the philosophy of the three-party psyche. which is besides attributed to the early Pythagoreans on good authorization. though it is common now to impute it to Plato. There are. nevertheless. clear mentions to it before his clip. and it agrees much better with the general mentality of the Pythagoreans. The comparing of human life to a assemblage like the Games was frequently repeated in ulterior yearss. Pythagoras besides taught the philosophy of Rebirth or transmigration. which we may hold learned from the modern-day Orphics. Xenophanes made merriment of him for feigning to acknowledge the voice of a bygone friend in the ululation of a beaten Canis familiaris. Empedocles seems to be mentioning to him when he speaks of a adult male who could retrieve what happened ten or 20 coevalss before. It was on this that the philosophy of Recollection. which plays so great a portion in Plato. was based. The things we perceive with the senses. Plato argues. remind us of things we knew when the psyche was out of the organic structure and could comprehend world straight. There is more trouble about the cosmology of Pythagoras. Barely any school of all time professed such fear for its founder’s authorization as the Pythagoreans. ‘The Master said so’ was their war cry. On the other manus. few schools have shown so much capacity for advancement and for accommodating themselves to new conditions. Pythagoras started from the cosmical system of Anaximenes. Aristotle tells us that the Pythagoreans represented the universe as inhaling ‘air’ signifier the boundless mass outside it. and this ‘air’ is identified with ‘the unlimited’ . When. nevertheless. we come to the procedure by which things are developed out of the ‘unlimited’ . we observe a great alteration. We hear nil more of ‘separating out’ or even of rarefaction and condensation. Alternatively of that we have the theory that what gives signifier to the Unlimited is the Limit. That is the great part of Pythagoras to philosophy. and we must seek to understand it. Now the map of the Limit is normally illustrated from the humanistic disciplines of music and medical specialty. and we have seen how of import these two humanistic disciplines were for Pythagoreans. so it is natural to deduce that the key to its significance is to be found in them. It may be taken as certain that Pythagoras himself discovered the numerical ratios which determine the accordant intervals of the musical graduated table. Similar to musical intervals. in medical specialty there are antonyms. such as the hot and the cold. the moisture and the prohibitionist. and it is the concern of the doctor to bring forth a proper ‘blend’ of these in the human organic structure. In a well-known transition of Plato’s Phaedo ( 86 B ) we are told by Simmias that the Pythagoreans held the organic structure to be strung like an instrument to a certain pitch. hot and cold. moisture and dry taking the topographic point of high and low in music. Musical tuning and wellness are likewise agencies originating from the application of Limit to the Unlimited. It was natural for Pythagoras to look for something of the same sort in the universe at big. Briefly stated. the philosophy of Pythagoras was that all things are Numberss. In certain cardinal instances. the early Pythagoreans represented Numberss and explained their belongingss by agencies of points arranged in certain ‘figures’ or forms. Zeno’s Paradoxes In the 5th century B. C. E. . Zeno of Elea offered statements that led to decisions beliing what we all know from our physical experience–that smugglers run. that arrows fly. and that there are many different things in the universe. The statements were paradoxes for the ancient Grecian philosophers. Because most of the statements turn crucially on the impression that infinite and clip are boundlessly divisible- for illustration. that for any distance there is such a thing as half that distance. and so on- Zeno was the first individual in history to demo that the construct of eternity is debatable. In his Achilles Paradox. Achilles races to catch a slower runner–for illustration. a tortoise that is creeping off from him. The tortoise has a head start. so if Achilles hopes to catch it. he must run at least to the topographic point where the tortoise soon is. but by the clip he arrives at that place. it will hold crawled to a new topographic point. so so Achilles must run to this new topographic point. but the tortoise interim will hold crawled on. and so forth. Achilles will neer catch the tortoise. says Zeno. Therefore. good logical thinking shows that fast smugglers neer can catch slow 1s. So much the worse for the claim that gesture truly occurs. Zeno says in defence of his wise man Parmenides who had argued that gesture is an semblance. Although practically no bookmans today would hold with Zeno’s decision. we can non get away the paradox by leaping up from our place and trailing down a tortoise. nor by stating Achilles should run to some other mark topographic point in front of where the tortoise is at the minute. What is required is an analysis of Zeno’s ain statement that does non acquire us embroiled in new paradoxes nor impoverish our mathematics and scientific discipline. This article explains his 10 known paradoxes and considers the interventions that have been offered. Zeno assumed distances and continuances can be divided into an existent eternity ( what we now call a transfinite eternity ) of indivisible parts. and he assumed these are excessively many for the smuggler to finish. Aristotle‘s intervention said Zeno should hold assumed there are merely possible eternities. and that neither topographic points nor times divide into indivisible parts. His intervention became the by and large recognized solution until the late nineteenth century. The current criterion intervention says Zeno was right to reason that a runner’s way contains an existent eternity of parts. but he was mistaken to presume this is excessively many. This intervention employs the setup of concretion which has proved its indispensableness for the development of modern scientific discipline. In the 20th century it eventually became clear that forbiding existent eternities. as Aristotle wanted. shackles the growing of set theory and finally of mathematics and natural philosophies. This standard intervention took 100s of old ages to hone and was due to the flexibleness of intellectuals who were willing to replace old theories and their constructs with more fruitful 1s. despite the harm done to common sense and our naif intuitions. The article ends by researching newer interventions of the paradoxes- and related paradoxes such as Thomson’s Lamp Paradox- that were developed since the 1950s. Parmenides ( B. 510 BCE ) Parmenides was a Grecian philosopher and poet. Born of an celebrated household about BCE. 510. at Elea in Lower Italy. and is is the main representative of the Eleatic doctrine. He was held in high regard by his fellow-citizens for his first-class statute law. to which they ascribed the prosperity and wealth of the town. He was besides admired for his model life. A â€Å"Parmenidean life† was proverbial among the Greeks. He is normally represented as a adherent of Xenophanes. Parmenides wrote after Heraclitus. and in witting resistance to him. given the apparent allusion to Hericlitus: â€Å"for whom it is and is non. the same and non the same. and all things travel in opposite directions† ( Fr. 6. 8 ) . Little more is known of his life than that he stopped at Athens on a journey in his 65th twelvemonth. and there became acquainted with the vernal Socrates. That must hold been in the center of the 5th century BCE. . or shortly after it. Parmenides broke with the older Ionic prose tradition by composing in hexameter poetry. His didactic verse form. called On Nature. survives in fragments. although the Proem ( or introductory discourse ) of the work has been preserved. Parmenides was a immature adult male when he wrote it. for the goddess who reveals the truth to him addresses him as â€Å"youth. † The work is considered unartistic. Its Hesiodic manner was appropriate for the cosmology he describes in the 2nd portion. but is ill-sorted to the waterless dialectic of the first. Parmenides was no born poet. and we must inquire what led him to take this new going. The illustration of Xenophanes’ poetic Hagiographas is non a complete account ; for the poesy of Parmenides is as unlike that of Xenophanes as it good can be. and his manner is more similar Hesiod and the Orphics. In the Proem Parmenides describes his acclivity to the place of the goddess who is supposed to talk the balance of the poetries ; this i s a reflection of the conventional acclivities into Eden which were about every bit common as descents into snake pit in the revelatory literature of those yearss. The Proem opens with Parmenides stand foring himself as borne on a chariot and attended by the Sunmaidens who have quitted the Halls of Night to steer him on his journey. They pass along the main road till they come to the Gate of Night and Day. which is locked and barred. The key is in the maintaining of Dike ( Right ) . the Avenger. who is persuaded to unlock it by the Sunmaidens. They pass in through the gate and are now. of class. in the kingdoms of Day. The end of the journey is the castle of a goddess who welcomes Parmenides and instructs him in the two ways. that of Truth and the delusory manner of Belief. in which is no truth at all. All this is described without inspiration and in a purely conventional mode. so it must be interpreted by the canons of the revelatory manner. It is clearly meant to bespeak that Parmenides had been converted. that he had passed from mistake ( dark ) to truth ( twenty-four hours ) . and the Two Wayss must stand for his former mistake and the trut h which is now revealed to him. There is ground to believe that the Way of Belief is an history of Pythagorean cosmology. In any instance. it is certainly impossible to see it as anything else than a description of some mistake. The goddess says so in words that can non be explained off. Further. this erroneous belief is non the ordinary man’s position of the universe. but an luxuriant system. which seems to be a natural development the Ionian cosmology on certain lines. and there is no other system but the Pythagorean that fulfils this demand. To this it has been objected that Parmenides would non hold taken the problem to elaborate in item a system he had wholly rejected. but that is to misidentify the character of the revelatory convention. It is non Parmenides. but the goddess. that expounds the system. and it is for this ground that the beliefs described are said to be those of ‘mortals’ . Now a description of the acclivity of the psyche would be rather uncomplete without a image of the part from which it had escaped. The goddess must uncover the two ways at the farewell of which Parmenides stands. and bid him take the better. The rise of mathematics in the Pythagorean school had revealed for the first clip the power of idea. To the mathematician of all work forces it is the same thing that can be thought and that can be. and this is the rule from which Parmenides starts. It is impossible to believe what is non. and it is impossible for what can non be thought to be. The great inquiry. Is it or is it non? is hence tantamount to the inquiry. Can it be thought or non? In any instance. the work therefore has two divisions. The first discusses the truth. and the 2nd the universe of semblance - that is. the universe of the senses and the erroneous sentiments of world founded upon them. In his sentiment truth lies in the perceptual experience that being is. and mistake in the thought that non-existence besides can be. Nothing can hold existent being but what is imaginable ; therefore to be imagined and to be able to be are the same thing. and there is no development. The kernel of what is imaginable is incapable of development. imperishable. changeless. boundless. and indivisible. What is assorted and changeable. all development. is a false apparition. Perception is thought directed to the pure kernel of being ; the phenomenal universe is a psychotic belief. and the sentiments formed refering it can merely be unlikely. Parmenides goes on to see in the visible radiation of this rule the effects of stating that anything is. In the first topographic point. it can non hold come into being. If it had. it must hold arisen from nil or from something. It can non hold arisen from nil ; for there is no nil. It can non hold arisen from something ; for here is nil else than what is. Nor can anything else besides itself come into being ; for there can be no empty infinite in which it could make so. Is it or is it non? If it is. so it is now. all at one time. In this manner Parmenides refutes all histories of the beginning of the universe. Ex nihilo nihil tantrum. Further. if it is. it merely is. and it can non be more or less. There is. hence. as much of it in one topographic point as in another. ( That makes rarefaction and condensation impossible. ) it is uninterrupted and indivisible ; for there is nil but itself which could forestall its parts being in contact with one another. It is hence full. a uninterrupted indivisible plenum. ( That is directed against the Pythagorean theory of a discontinuous reality. ) Further. it is immoveable. If it moved. it must travel into empty infinite. and empty infinite is nil. and there is no nil. Besides it is finite and spherical ; for it can non be in one way any more than in another. and the domain is the lone figure of which this can be said. What is. therefore a finite. spherical. motionless. uninterrupted plenum. and there is nil beyond it. Coming into being and discontinuing to be are mere ‘names’ . and so is gesture. and still more colour and the similar. They are non even ideas ; for a idea must be a idea of something that is. and none of these can be. Such is the decision to which the position of the existent as a individual organic structure necessarily leads. and there is no flight from it. The ‘matter’ of our physical text-books is merely the existent of Parmenides ; and. unless we can happen room for something else than affair. we are shut up into his history of world. No subsequent system could afford to disregard this. but of class it was impossible to assent for good in a philosophy like that of Parmenides. It deprives the universe we know of all claim to existence. and reduces it to something which is barely even an semblance. If we are to give an apprehensible history of the universe. we must surely present gesture once more someway. That can neer be taken for granted any more. as it was by the early cosmologists ; we must try to explicate it if we are to get away from the decisions of Parmenides. Heraclitus ( Florida. c. 500 BCE ) A Grecian philosopher of the late sixth century BCE. Heraclitus criticizes his predecessors and coevalss for their failure to see the integrity in experience. He claims to denote an everlasting Word ( Logos ) harmonizing to which all things are one. in some sense. Antonyms are necessary for life. but they are unified in a system of balanced exchanges. The universe itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements. symbolized by fire. Thus the universe is non to be identified with any peculiar substance. but instead with an on-going procedure governed by a jurisprudence of alteration. The implicit in jurisprudence of nature besides manifests itself as a moral jurisprudence for human existences. Heraclitus is the first Western philosopher to travel beyond physical theory in hunt of metaphysical foundations and moral applications. Anaxagoras ( c. 500- 428 BCE ) Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was an of import Presocratic natural philosopher and scientist who lived and taught in Athens for about 30 old ages. He gained ill fame for his mercenary positions. peculiarly his contention that the Sun was a fiery stone. This led to charges of impiousness. and he was sentenced to decease by the Athenian tribunal. He avoided this punishment by go forthing Athens. and he spent his staying old ages in expatriate. While Anaxagoras proposed theories on a assortment of topics. he is most celebrated for two theories. First. he speculated that in the physical universe everything contains a part of everything else. His observation of how nutrition works in animate beings led him to reason that in order for the nutrient an animate being chows to turn into bone. hair. flesh. and so away. it must already incorporate all of those components within it. The 2nd theory of significance is Anaxagoras’ predication of Mind ( Nous ) as the initiating and regulating rule of the universe. Democritus ( 460- 370 BCE ) Democritus was born at Abdera. about 460 BCE. although harmonizing to some 490. His male parent was from a baronial household and of great wealth. and contributed mostly towards the amusement of the ground forces of Xerxes on his return to Asia. As a wages for this service the Iranian sovereign gave and other Abderites nowadayss and left among them several Magi. Democritus. harmonizing to Diogenes Laertius. was instructed by these Magi in uranology and divinity. After the decease of his male parent he traveled in hunt of wisdom. and devoted his heritage to this intent. amounting to one hundred endowments. He is said to hold visited Egypt. Ethiopia. Persia. and India. Whether. in the class of his travels. he visited Athens or studied under Anaxagoras is unsure. During some portion of his life he was instructed in Pythagoreanism. and was a adherent of Leucippus. After several old ages of going. Democritus returned to Abdera. with no agencies of subsistence. His brother Damosis. nevertheless. took him in. Harmonizing to the jurisprudence of Abdera. whoever wasted his patrimony would be deprived of the rites of entombment. Democritus. trusting to avoid this shame. gave public talks. Petronius relates that he was acquainted with the virtuousnesss of herbs. workss. and rocks. and that he spent his life in doing experiments upon natural organic structures. He acquired celebrity with his cognition of natural phenomena. and predicted alterations in the conditions. He used this ability to do people believe that he could foretell future events. They non merely viewed him as something more than person. but even proposed to set him in control of their public personal businesss. He preferred a contemplative to an active life. and hence declined these public awards and passed the balance of his yearss in purdah. Recognition can non be given to the narrative that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosopher’s rock - the dream of a ulterior age ; or to the narrative of his conversation with Hippocrates refering Democritus’s supposed lunacy. as based on specious letters. Democritus has been normally known as â€Å"The Laughing Philosopher. † and it is soberly related by Seneca that he neer appeared in public with out showing his disdain of human follies while express joying. Consequently. we find that among his fellow-citizens he had the name of â€Å"the mocker† . He died at more than a 100 old ages of age. It is said that from so on he spent his yearss and darks in caverns and burial chambers. and that. in order to get the hang his rational modules. he blinded himself with firing glass. This narrative. nevertheless. is discredited by the authors who mention it insofar as they say he wrote books and cleft animate beings. neither o f which could be done good without eyes. Democritus expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. He maintained the impossibleness of spliting things ad infinitum. From the trouble of delegating a beginning of clip. he argued the infinity of bing nature. of null infinite. and of gesture. He supposed the atoms. which are originally similar. to be impenetrable and have a denseness proportionate to their volume. All gestures are the consequence of active and inactive fondness. He drew a differentiation between primary gesture and its secondary effects. that is. impulse and reaction. This is the footing of the jurisprudence of necessity. by which all things in nature are ruled. The universes which we see - with all their belongingss of enormousness. resemblance. and dissimilitude - consequence from the eternal multiplicity of falling atoms. The human psyche consists of ball-shaped atoms of fire. which impart motion to the organic structure. Keeping his atomic theory throughout. Democritus introduced the hypothesis of images or graven images ( eidola ) . a sort of emanation from external objects. which make an feeling on our senses. and from the influence of which he deduced esthesis ( sensation ) and thought ( cognition ) . He distinguished between a rude. progressive. and hence false perceptual experience and a true one. In the same mode. consistent with this theory. he accounted for the popular impressions of Deity ; partially through our incapacity to understand to the full the phenomena of which we are informants. and partially from the feelings communicated by certain existences ( eidola ) of tremendous stature and resembling the human figure which inhabit the air. We know these from dreams and the causes of divination. He carried his theory into practical doctrine besides. puting down that felicity consisted in an even disposition. From this he deduced his moral rules and prudential axioms. It was from Democritus that Epicurus borrowed the chief characteristics of his doctrine. Empedocles ( c. 492- 432 BCE ) Empedocles ( of Acagras in Sicily ) was a philosopher and poet: one of the most of import of the philosophers working before Socrates ( the Presocratics ) . and a poet of outstanding ability and of great influence upon later poets such as Lucretius. His plant On Nature and Purifications ( whether they are two verse forms or merely one – see below ) exist in more than 150 fragments. He has been regarded diversely as a materialist physicist. a shamanic prestidigitator. a mystical theologist. a therapist. a democratic politician. a life God. and a fraud. To him is attributed the innovation of the four-element theory of affair ( Earth. air. fire. and H2O ) . one of the earliest theories of atom natural philosophies. set frontward apparently to deliver the phenomenal universe from the inactive monism of Parmenides. Empedocles’ world-view is of a cosmic rhythm of ageless alteration. growing and decay. in which two personified cosmic forces. Love and Strife. engage in an ageless conflict for domination. In psychological science and moralss Empedocles was a follower of Pythagoras. hence a truster in the transmigration of psyches. and therefore besides a vegetarian. He claims to be a daimon. a Godhead or potentially godly being. who. holding been banished from the immortals Gods for ‘three times infinite years’ for perpetrating the wickedness of meat-eating and forced to endure consecutive reincarnations in an purificatory journey through the different orders of nature and elements of the universe. has now achieved the most perfect of human provinces and will be reborn as an immortal. He besides claims apparently charming powers including the ability to resuscitate the dead and to command the air currents and rains.

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Innovating - Essay Example The broad nature of ideas in the definitions of innovation and skills, the hardship in the ability to relate innovative outputs and outcome with human capital, and the limitation in the availability of innovation-specific information have made it difficult task for firms to accurately come up with innovative means of operations in order to maximize their potential in performance. This study aims at exploring the link that exists between the desired innovations and skills necessary for the management of an enterprise (Acharya, 2012). In both managerial and individual levels, one needs to acquire and develop certain skill in order to become efficient in the smooth running of his/her business operations. Some of these basic skills include; academic skills, reading and writing, generic skills in problem solving, multicultural openness, technical skills, and leadership skills. These are some of the skills one will need to add in his/her portfolio as a manager and an individual. Skill assessment exercise helps one measure his level of skills and realize the need to add more skills necessary for effective management (Acharya, 2012). In creativity design, the managers will also be required to acquire the managerial and entrepreneurship skills in order to be able to foresee future opportunities and threats in their managerial operations. Individuals need to acquire the skills that will enable them to; learn from their work place the new ideas and opportunities that can be explored at an individual level for their development of skills and knowledge (Aghion, 2013). The required set of skills in an organization is determined by certain factors such as the type of innovation and industry structure, as well as the stage of the innovation. Some of the problems foreseen in group exercise are on how the group will be able to draw different skill mixes in different times to come up with

UK Recorded Music Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

UK Recorded Music Industry - Essay Example In 2001, four largest music companies in the world (British EMI among them) tried to combat the piracy by developing new software program that made impossible for online users to copy CD to internet. In spite of the fact that many analysts claimed that this step would reduce the quality of recording, the companies nevertheless implemented this program as they were resolved to fight online piracy by new technological means. Online sharing of music and video files had been one of the huge problems for music industry since the end of the 20th century, as such companies as Napster that distributed music files for free, gained popularity. Despite the fact that Napster’s activities were curbed, online files sharing was still widespread at the beginning of 2001. New files-sharing systems, such as MusicCity and Kazaa were used by online users instead of Napster. Many specialists and analysts insisted that online sharing could be effectively combated by selling music files through onli ne legal subscriptions of major recording companies, yet such services of recording companies had many drawbacks as it was still impossible to copy digital files to CDs as well as portable devices. Neither it was clear whether file sharing, would be as cheap as the services provided by Nepster and other file sharing system

Humanitarian Supply Chains & Disaster Relief Management Assignment

Humanitarian Supply Chains & Disaster Relief Management - Assignment Example â€Å"In addition, international humanitarian law and international criminal law prohibit acts of torture and ill-treatment not limited to those perpetrated by government forces, but also by members of armed groups.† (Caring for human rights challenges and opportunities for nurses and midwives, 2006). However, it is necessary and even imperative that disasters need to be stopped on their tracks through global satellite positioning techniques and Early Warning Systems (EWS). But this is easier said than done. Nevertheless, â€Å"practicing information gathering during a non-critical event or during a disaster to which the team is not responding is an excellent way to practice and hone skills.† (Budd n.d, p.14). There needs to be maximum consistency, coordination and assimilation between discrete, independent and diverse agencies along the humanitarian supply chain if the main objectives of such efforts are to fructify the threat of disasters itself rather than to underta ke relief and rescue operations after the horses have bolted from their stables. This study considers the critical appraisal and evaluation of the importance of logistics and supply chain management aspects and their impacts on humanitarian supply chain and disaster relief management. Humanitarian logistics underpin relief and rescue operations throughout the world. â€Å"The process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of goods and materials as well as related information, from the point of origin to the point of consumption for the purpose of meeting the end beneficiary’s requirements.†

UK Recorded Music Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

UK Recorded Music Industry - Essay Example In 2001, four largest music companies in the world (British EMI among them) tried to combat the piracy by developing new software program that made impossible for online users to copy CD to internet. In spite of the fact that many analysts claimed that this step would reduce the quality of recording, the companies nevertheless implemented this program as they were resolved to fight online piracy by new technological means. Online sharing of music and video files had been one of the huge problems for music industry since the end of the 20th century, as such companies as Napster that distributed music files for free, gained popularity. Despite the fact that Napster’s activities were curbed, online files sharing was still widespread at the beginning of 2001. New files-sharing systems, such as MusicCity and Kazaa were used by online users instead of Napster. Many specialists and analysts insisted that online sharing could be effectively combated by selling music files through onli ne legal subscriptions of major recording companies, yet such services of recording companies had many drawbacks as it was still impossible to copy digital files to CDs as well as portable devices. Neither it was clear whether file sharing, would be as cheap as the services provided by Nepster and other file sharing system

Mancorp Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mancorp Organization - Essay Example Mancorp needs to change its organizational culture into an ethical institution that is guided by acculturated moral values among its members at different levels. I recommend two strategies for changing the organization’s culture to one whose practices will eliminate the current legal liabilities. â€Å"Positive reinforcement† is my preferred strategy (Luneburg and Ornstein 204). It involves the application of a stimulus after a desirable outcome and it would motivate members of the organization towards changing their attitudes and behaviors. Offering rewards to managers whose departments register lower reported cases of sexual harassment and sexual discrimination and promoting those whose departments succeed in mitigating the harassment and discrimination cases are examples of stimuli for the strategy. The approach can also be applied to mitigating fraud in the organization. The reinforcement strategy may however fail and I recommend punitive approach as a supplementary strategy. This strategy involves the application of a negative stimulus to an unwanted behavior such as suspending a manager who is found guilty of harassment, discrimination, or fraud. The two strategies will facilitate change in organizational culture. The organization should develop and implement a rule-based policy to achieving the proposed culture. It should, for example, develop the code of ethics and conduct that denounce sexual discrimination, sexual harassment, and fraud. The policy should further outline penalties for breaching outlaid codes. Further, the organization should organize training sessions for its employees, on ethical practices, and promote awareness on integrity, honesty, and respect of persons. Experts on organizational change can for example facilitate the training sessions. Application of these strategies, policy, and training program will ensure change and eliminate the liabilities. Mike Miller’s case The case involves Mike who purchased an automobile from Mountainside Audi dealership in Colorado. He left the state for New York but was involved in an accident in Indiana.

Us Womens History Essay Example for Free

Us Womens History Essay The Native American women were trained to work hard in the fields and in the house. They were held responsible for over 75% of food production and the gathering of the fruits in the community. These women were responsible for making clothes for themselves and their families from the skin of rabbit and dear. The Native American women were allowed to dress in long dresses and leggings. The Native American women mostly practice agriculture when civilization of Europeans arrived and because of all their lives depends agriculture their economy grows with their own hard work spiritual role. As the women are the backbone of the community, they are given right to own land and in this they use for farming and inherit it to their descendants. In America native communities in 1600 century, women are given to have much power than European women, this is because Native American women are very hard working and they also have good feelings and near to their husbands, thus they are given equal opportunity to rest of the community. Status of Women in the Southern and Northern colonies In the southern colonies women were legally subordinate to men, politically and nonetheless improved economically in the colonial period. Southern colonies the women were view less than the men, where they took advantage for their right in the society of inheriting the land of their late husbands. The southern colonies focus was on profit while northern colonies focus on religion. The northern colonies are better in status than southern colonies because northern women are married earlier, they had larger families and they live longer than their cousins on the other side of the ocean. Living conditions in the early Northern and southern colonies Living condition in early 1600 in north and south, colonies used Americans as slaves and servants for their plantations, but in late 1600 the African slaves became the primary source of American slaves. Southern plantation used to give huge profit to the northern merchants. Colonies came to America for religion and looking for job as most of them escape war. Although they got a lot of resources, but they started colonizing Americans living condition of Americans was too poor and white colonizes took these advantage and started employing some of the Americans and some of Americans bought as servant with 25- 50 dollars. The servants were given a small grubstake and if she or he was lucky, a few acres of land. Thus, some of the servants were treated fairly. Servants or slaves who are living at southern were treated as slaves without any payment. (Kramarde, Cheris. and Spender, Dale. 107) Work cited Kramarde, Cheris and Spender, Dale. Routledge International Encyclopedia of women. Routledge. (2000).

Impact of Malaysias Recession on Undergraduate Start-up

Impact of Malaysias Recession on Undergraduate Start-up Chapter 1 1.0 Introduction This part contains research background which illustrates basic knowledge for readers to understand better on the research. Problem statement and objectives tell the reasons why this research is done. Basically this part is significance for introducing the whole research. Other information includes scope and assumption, definition and abbreviation, limitation and significance of the research and research outline. 1.1 Research Background Recession occurs when the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of a country falls below 5-10 per cent, lasting for two or more quarters consecutively. The GDP is the total market value of services, goods, investment and labour created within a country in a given period of time, which is usually one year. Frankly speaking, it is said that a recession is a less severe downturn in the economy, and it has a tendency of getting resolved faster compare to the great depression. The differences between a recession and a depression is, recession is a regular economic downturn that lasts for about 6 months to 1Â ½ years, and a depression is a sharp downturn lasting a number of years. Generally a recession occurs when there is more than 5% people are unemployed for a period of 6-18 months, whereas a depression occurs when more than 10% people are unemployed for a longer period of time lasting years. Different people had different perception towards a recession. For example, it means a recession for a retailer when his sales drop from 5% to 20%. To stockbrokers, it means a fall in the prices of stocks. The fall of demand and production means a recession for manufacturers. For normal people, recession can happened in two ways either a significant increase in prices, known as inflation, or a decrease in prices, known as deflation. If there is a decrease in prices, it caused by people that are having less money to spend or chooses not to spend as much money; it leads to the lowering of the GDP. Whereas, when there is an increase in the prices it will reduce of public as well as private purchase power and it causes the GDP to decrease. (Makhsudul Islam, n.d.) As a highly open economy, Malaysia has been affected by the deepening global economic recession. After growing by 7% in the first half of 2008, the Malaysian economy recorded a growth of 0.1% in the fourth quarter of 2008, and contracted by 6.2% in the first quarter of 2009, as a result of a sharp decline in exports. Given the expectation of a more pronounced global recession, the Malaysian economy is projected to contract by 4 5% in 2009. Conditions are expected to improve in the second half year particularly in the fourth quarter and going into 2010. Amidst the unfavourable external conditions, support to the economy will be from domestic demand, following the implementation of a significant fiscal stimulus, the cumulative accommodative monetary policy actions and the continued access to financing. The Malaysian economy is expected to experience the full impact of the global economic downturn in 2009. In response, several policy measures have been put in place with a primary focus on supporting domestic demand as well as mitigating the impact of the global slowdown on the affected segments of the economy A great deal of emphasis has been placed on nurturing the next generation of Malaysian entrepreneurs with programmes and initiatives that expose youth to business culture and cultivate entrepreneurship. This was designed to prepare youth to be independent and self employed later in life, if they choose this career path. In 2008, the Small and Medium Industries Development Corporation (SMIDEC) in collaboration with the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) introduced the SME University Internship Programme to train and develop budding entrepreneurs among graduates. The programme links SMEs to universities, thus enhancing the synergy between industry and academia to upgrade the capacity and capability of SMEs. Under this Programme, final-year students under the tutelage of their lecturers, SMIDECs SME Business Counsellors and the SME Expert Advisory Panel (SEAP) provide consultancy, advisory and mentoring services to SMEs with the aim to upgrade the companies operations in packaging, branding, marketing, accounts and technical areas. As for the graduates, the programme provided exposure to industry and real-life day-to-day issues faced by SMEs, enabling them to make practical applications of their studies and sharpen their interests to venture into business. Meanwhile, to facilitate unemployed graduates and school leavers to venture into the retail sector, the Ministry of Domestic Trade, Cooperatives and Consumerism (MDTCC) conducted the Train and Work Programme benefiting 1,000 individuals. The programme was aimed at providing training and career development in operating hypermarkets, exposing participants to the retail sub-sector and inculcating entrepreneurial culture. To assist start-up businesses, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) continued to provide Matching Grant for Business Start-ups via its agency, SMIDEC which benefited 1,400 SMEs. (SME AR, 2008) In this paper, we are going to discuss factors that affecting undergraduates start-up decision in entrepreneurship point of view. During the recession, most of the start-up is a necessity entrepreneurship. The 2004 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) report shows that there is great variability in the relative distribution of opportunity and necessity entrepreneurship across the 34 countries in the GEM sample. GRM 2004 had distinguished between necessity entrepreneurship, and opportunity entrepreneurship. According to GEM 2004, a necessity entrepreneurship is which has to become an entrepreneur because no better option and an opportunity entrepreneurship is an active choice to start a new enterprise based on the perception that a unexploited, or underexploited business opportunity exists. The opportunity entrepreneurs are more prevalent in high-income countries (such as France, the United Kingdom and the United States), while necessity entrepreneurs are more common in the low-incom e countries (such as Hungary and Poland). Accordingly, it may be argued that in developed countries opportunity entrepreneurship is linked to economic growth, while in most developing countries necessity entrepreneurship exists because of low growth. It may be that because richer countries are characterized by a more developed labour market or access to stronger safety nets (social welfare), there is a lower need for starting up a business and that therefore these countries exhibit lower necessity-based entrepreneurial activity rates. (Reynolds, Bygrave Autio, 2004) 1.2 Problem Statement The factors that affecting undergraduates start-up decision was chosen to be area of study with due of the following reason: Malaysia is having recession, various policies had been made to counter this crisis and we could see that government is stressing on the role of entrepreneurs in helping Malaysia to come out from the recession. We need to identify undergraduates perception and their supportiveness to entrepreneurship as they maybe the pool of unemployment in this crisis. Graduates unemployment rate had keep increasing; it is believe to reach a critical high rate in this long recession. Start-up can be a good ways for them in overcoming this problem. Now we need to recognize what are the forces that push undergraduates to start-up in despite of recession. Basically the main problem statement and research direction is to answer this question: 1) What are the factors that influence undergraduates to start-up during recession? 1.3 Research Objectives The objectives of this research are: 1) To understand how undergraduates perceive the role of entrepreneurship and start-up in stimulating Malaysia economic during recession. 2) To identify factors that influence undergraduates to start-up in despite recession 1.4 Significance of the Research This research is significant because it distinguish undergraduates perception on entrepreneurship role in this economic crisis. Economists had clarified the importance of entrepreneurship in economic recovery, but many people didnt realise it. Most of the people are fear to start their business in the downturn even they are jobless. In their view, start-up during recession is too risky and couldnt create enough benefits for them to try it compare to the loss possibility. This perception is negative in helping Malaysia economic recovery and relief jobless people from the unemployment. In this paper, undergraduates are tested on their willingness to start-up and what are the causes that may influence them to make such decision. This is significance as undergraduates unemployment rate had being an issue in Malaysia for many years. A large number of undergraduates will jobless in the recession and this incident could be solve by start-up. 1.5 Limitation of the Research Some of the respondents may not have sufficient background knowledge about this research so they may not understand or misunderstand the question asked. There are a lot of economics terms which maybe unfamiliar and create confuse for the respondents. It also cannot be discounted that the respondents might have completed the questionnaire without giving serious review on the question in the survey as they could try to be compassionate and sympathetic to assist the undergraduate to complete the project. As this research is a non-sponsor research, the limited expense budget has significant influence on the population sample size. Therefore, there were some limitations with respect to the analysis and data that may affect the accuracy of the results. 1.6 Outline of the Research This study is divided into 5 chapters. Chapter 1: Introduction It introduces general information of this research, especially in the Malaysia context. It also briefly discussed the background of the study. This is followed by a brief on problem statement and objectives of the study, which is the most important section of this chapter. In addition, the, limitations of the research, the significance of the study, the scope and assumption are described. Chapter 2: Literature Review Literature review presents some basic knowledge and theories relating to the research variables. This chapter will provide the information needed to answer the research question. The review is the foundation for developing a conceptual framework in the next chapter. Chapter 3: Methodology This chapter is an important chapter of this study. It includes the research variables, conceptual framework, hypothesis and the research methodology. This chapter describes the conceptual framework which is the basis for designing questionnaire. The hypothesis formed will be tested too by the result of the questionnaire. Chapter 4: Results and Discussions This chapter presents and statistical analyses the raw data collected from the survey. The statistical relationship of the data is logically interpreted, discussed and argued to make sense on the findings. The results and findings will be discussed deeply on the consequences and effect for each variable. Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations This section will precede an overall summary of the study and propose discussion after conducting the entire research. Moreover, in this chapter it will also stated the limitation of the study and yet it will propose the suggestion for future research. A conclusion is made and which must answered the problem statement propose before. 1.7 Definition and Abbreviations Definitions used by researchers are often not conform, so it is important to define the positions and views taken in this thesis in regards to some key concepts. Definitions of core constructs will also be dealt with in more depth when the various literatures are discussed. Providing an overview here will give readers a clearer understanding of important concepts. Recession: A period of general economic decline; typically defined as a decline in GDP for two or more consecutive quarters. A recession is typically accompanied by a drop in the stock market, an increase in unemployment, and a decline in the housing market. Entrepreneurship: The assumption of risk and responsibility in designing and implementing a business strategy or starting a business. Start-up: A new business venture SME: Small Medium Enterprise GEM: Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Fiscal Policy: The use of government spending and revenue collection to influence the economy Monetary Policy: The process by which the government, central bank, or monetary authority of a country controls (i) the supply of money, (ii) availability of money, and (iii) cost of money or rate of interest, in order to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and stability of the economy Market concentration: Is a function of the number of firms and their respective shares of the total production (alternatively, total capacity or total reserves) in a market FRB: Federal Reserve Bank 1.8 Scope and Key Assumptions The scope of the population sample covers undergraduates majoring in Bachelor of Business Administration in Malaysia. The sample is selected from the final year student of a university. All of the respondents are assumed to have basic business knowledge and some acquiring knowledge on entrepreneurship, economic recession and government policy implemented in Malaysia. Most of the population samples are chosen from Malacca region. Assumptions on the respondents are as follows: l Respondents have basic business knowledge and understand economic terms used in the questionnaire l Respondents are familiar with current economic condition and policy implemented in Malaysia l Respondents are honest in their responses to the survey and are not influenced by hearsays in completing the questionnaire. 1.9 Conclusions This chapter has laid the foundation for this research. It introduced the research objectives and raise up the research question.. The research was justified, definitions were presented, the scope and assumption was briefly described, the report was outlined, and the limitations were given. On these foundations, this paper can proceed with a detailed description of the research. Chapter 2 2.0 Literature Review This chapter gives an overview of literature that is related to the research problem presented in the previous chapter. This chapter will introduce the factors that affecting undergraduates start-up and how this factor influence their decisions. Besides, it still covers some definition and experts opinion about the variables in order to give a clear idea about the research area. 2.1 Job Opportunity Tay (2009) point out that in Malaysia, traditional medicine company Hai-O has successfully helped thousands of ordinary Malaysian bumiputeras becomes millionaires through its entrepreneurship development business model. In times of economic slowdown, Malaysian companies should emulate Hai-Os example to create opportunities and employment for the people. The government should also quickly initiate an entrepreneurial development campaign for all races based on merit, since this is one of the measures to create self-employment and counter the economic crisis. In the midst of record unemployment, a new Kauffman Foundation-funded U.S. Census Bureau study reports that startup companies are a major contributor to job creation. The Business Dynamics Statistics (BDS) also indicate that while business startups decline slightly in most of the cyclical downturns, startups remain robust even in the most severe recession over the sample period (in the early 1980s). Job growth is essential for our economy to rebound, and this study shows that new firms have historically been an important source of new jobs in the United States, said Robert E. Litan, vice president of Research and Policy at the Kauffman Foundation, which funded the BDS. Our research into the early years of business formation consistently shows how vital new firms are to our economy, and this data should give policymakers and budding entrepreneurs alike great hope for how we can solve our current crisis—create and grow jobs through entrepreneurship. (Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 2009 Jan) The BDS data show that employment accounted for by U.S. private-sector business startups over the 1980-2005 period was about 3 percent per year. While still a small fraction of overall employment, these jobs from startups reflect new jobs, which is a large percentage compared to the average annual net employment growth of the U.S. private sector for the same period (about 1.8 percent). This pattern implies that, if you exclude the jobs from new firms, the U.S. net employment growth rate is negative on average. Micro firms (firms with one to four employees) accounted for a large percentage of new jobs in any given year—about 20 percent on average. Although substantially larger startup firms (those with 250 to 499 employees) created a considerably smaller percentage of jobs in any given year—about 1.3 percent of employment in this firm-size class—their numbers still are substantial relative to net growth. Although the overall business startup rate in the BDS does not exhibit much of a trend, the data do reveal a declining trend in the micro-firm business startup rate. This may reflect compositional changes in sectors such as retail trade, where there is ample evidence of substantial shifts away from small, single-establishment firms to large, national firms. (Haltiwanger, Miranda, Jarmin, 2009) Entrepreneurs will be the foundation of our nations economic recovery because they start and grow businesses that create jobs. Research indicates that former employees are often receptive to starting a new business during a recession. A Kauffman Foundation-funded U.S. Census Bureau study released in January reports that startup companies are a major contributor to job creation. The Business Dynamics Statistics (BDS) also indicate that while business startups decline slightly in most of the cyclical downturns, startups remain robust even in the most severe recession over the sample period .( in the early 1980s) (Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation,2009 Feb) The relationship between entrepreneurship and unemployment is analyzed by Audretsch, Carree, Thurik (2001) in an econometric model covering 23 OECD countries between 1974-1998. They find a complex relationship between the two variables. Defining entrepreneurship as firm start-ups there is both a positive effect of unemployment on entrepreneurship (the shopkeeper or refugee effect) as well as a negative relation (the Schumpeter effect). The GEM (2000) concludes that there is a strong relationship between entrepreneurial activities, defined as start-up activities, and economic growth. In the study, this definition of entrepreneurship is claimed to constitute the singularly most important factor for economic growth. In an econometric analysis of Sweden 1976-95, FÃ ¶lster (2000) finds significant support for the hypothesis that an increase in self-employment has a positive effect on overall employment. Another study of Sweden by Davidsson, Lindmark, Olofsson (1994) finds that 70 % of the new net jobs are generated in the small business sector in the period 1985-89. A further emphasis is that most of the new firms are not growth oriented, but are founded on a hobby or subsistence motive. Thus, small firms are important to the economy because of their large number but a vast majority of the upstarts will remain micro firms. Blanchflower (2000) does not support the hypothesis that increases in the level of self-employment increase the real growth rate. Furthermore, making a comparison of the level of self-employment in 23 OECD countries 1966, 1976, 1986 and 1996, Blanchflower finds that the level of non-agricultural self-employment has decreased in most of the countries. The relative importance of small firms is not undisputed as Davis, Haltiwanger, Schuh, (1996) and Bednarzik (2000) remark in their studies. Although important, entrepreneurship through start-ups is claimed to make a smaller contribution to job growth than expansion within existing firms in the U.S., Davis et al draw their conclusion from a study of data from the U.S. Census Bureau during 1972-1988, whereas Bednarzik has studied the mid-1990s. Although smaller firms have a higher gross job creation rate, large firms supply more in terms of net job creation. In a comment on Davis et al, Carree and Klomp (1996) contest its conclusion, arguing that small firms created more net jobs in the 1972-1988 periods relative to their employment share. Davidsson et al (1998) empirically test the regression fallacy, one reason for overestimating the importance of small firms according to Davis et al. The test by Davidsson et al covers Sweden 1989-96 and concludes that the bias does not imply a qualitative change on the overall result. Baldwin and Picot (1995) have studied the Canadian manufacturing sector 1970-90 and in order to avoid a regression-to-the-mean bias three different methods of estimation are used. A consistent finding is that small firms have a higher gross volatility in job growth and destruction but also a higher net employment growth than large firms. While an international comparison of the relative importance of small firms with respect to net job creation is interesting, the results are likely to differ between countries due to ins titutional reasons. For example, Davis and Henrekson (1999) show that the Swedish institutional environment prior to the economic crisis in the beginning of the 1990s significantly disfavored Swedish intensive-intensive, small, and/or managed-owned family businesses as well as entry of new firms compared to similar types of firms in the United States and other European countries. Using data from the U.S. manufacturing sector 1972-93 Haltiwanger and Krizan (1999) find that young firms exhibit high average net employment growth rate but also high volatility compared to mature establishments. Furthermore, among newly started firms there is no evidence of any systematic pattern by employer size of net employment growth. The conclusion is that in the context of employment growth, the age of firms appears to be more important than size, with the caveat that attributing a principal role to a single factor might be misleading. The survey, conducted by pollster Schoen, reveals that 63 percent to 23 percent, survey respondents prefer giving individuals the incentives they need to start their own businesses as opposed to allowing the government to create new jobs directly or through big corporations. Further, as a means of leading the country out of the economic crisis, 63 percent of respondents say the United States government needs to encourage the creation of new businesses, which will create sustainable, long-term employment opportunities and economic growth, while only 22 percent favor the government creating new jobs in the public and private sector. 79 percent of respondents say entrepreneurs are critically important to job creation, ranking higher than big business, scientists and government.Besides, Americans think the government does little to encourage entrepreneurship, despite its importance; 72 percent of respondents say the government should do more to encourage individuals to start businesses. Almost half of respondents think the laws in America make it more difficult to start a business.(Schoen,2009) 2.2 Innovation Tay (2009) study illustrate (cited from Professor Russell Sobel of West Virginia University), that infusions of venture capital funding do not necessarily foster entrepreneurship. Funding does not create new ideas — it is people who create new ideas. Funding merely follows and flows to those with new ideas and helps to commercialise the venture. In Malaysia, the government encourages ideas and provides seed funding through Cradle Sdn Bhd for commercially viable ideas. FRB of Dallass publication Entrepreneurs and the Economics say that the market system rewards those who create opportunities for employment and further innovation. When new products, processes and services are introduced by the entrepreneur, and when customers vote favorably with their dollars, even more opportunities arise. New products or service lines develop to further enhance the recently introduced products. The computer, for example, paved the way for the Internet, which, in turn, paved the way for search engines and software to explore the World Wide Web, which, in turn, created a new way for people to shop and obtain valuable information, and on and on. A wealthy economy is one teeming with superior contributions and the entrepreneurial opportunities created by them. The director of the U.S. Patent Office during 1899 was wrong when he said that everything that could be invented had already been invented. But the actual is most of the modern conveniences we take for granted today did not exist 100 years ago. According to FDB of Dallas in its publication Entrepreneurship and the Economics, the progress sparked by entrepreneurs ideas does not simply happen. A tremendous amount of work and a great deal of risk go into every new idea that eventually makes its way into the marketplace. And even though entrepreneurs create wealth and opportunity with their ideas, they are not always appreciated for what they do in the economy. One reason for this is that entrepreneurs can be extremely disruptive. When entrepreneurs take bold leaps and break contact with the familiar, they often leave behind a clutter of obsolete products and processes. This force is called creative destruction. For example, manual typewriters used to be in great demand, because they ser ved a useful function. Now, one would be hard-pressed to find a manual typewriter, or even an electric one, at work in a business. The same fate awaits countless other products, processes and services. New technologies replace old ones, and entrepreneurs spark the change. A healthy economy is one that allows creative destruction to occur because, overall, more people benefit than lose. Each act of creation brought about by entrepreneurs more than offsets the losses associated with products or processes becoming obsolete. (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, n.d.) Sobel stated that a vibrant, growing economy depends on the efficiency of the process by which new ideas are quickly discovered, acted on, and labeled as successes or failures. Just as important as identifying successes is making sure that failures are quickly extinguished, freeing poorly used resources to go elsewhere. This is the positive side of business failure. Successful entrepreneurs expand the size of the economic pie for everyone. Sam Walton, the founder of Wal-Mart, was an entrepreneur who touched millions of lives in a positive way. His innovations in distribution warehouse centers and inventory control allowed Wal-Mart to grow, in less than thirty years, from a single store in Arkansas to the nations largest retail chain. Shoppers benefit from the low prices and convenient locations that Waltons Wal-Marts provide. Along with other entrepreneurs such as Ted Turner (CNN), Henry Ford (Ford automobiles), Ray Kroc (McDonalds franchising), and Fred Smith (FedEx), Walton significantly improved the everyday life of billions of people all over the world. Schumpeter stressed the role of the entrepreneur as an innovator who implements change in an economy by introducing new goods or new methods of production. (Sobel, nd) In the Schumpeterian view, the entrepreneur is a disruptive force in an economy. Schumpeter emphasized the beneficial process of creative destruction, in which the introduction of new products results in the obsolescence or failure of others. The introduction of the compact disc and the corresponding disappearance of the vinyl record is just one of many examples of creative destruction: cars, electricity, aircraft, and personal computers are others. (Schumpeterian, 1911) In contrast to Schumpeters view, Kirzner focused on entrepreneurship as a process of discovery. Kirzners entrepreneur is a person who discovers previously unnoticed profit opportunities. The entrepreneurs discovery initiates a process in which these newly discovered profit opportunities are then acted on in the marketplace until market competition eliminates the profit opportunity. Unlike Schumpeters disruptive force, Kirzners entrepreneur is an equilibrating force. An example of such an entrepreneur would be someone in a college town who discovers that a recent increase in college enrollment has created a profit opportunity in renovating houses and turning them into rental apartments. Some empirical studies have attempted to determine the contribution of entrepreneurial activity to overall economic growth. The majority of the widely cited studies use international data, taking advantage of the index of entrepreneurial activity for each country published annually in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. These studies conclude that between one-third and one-half of the differences in economic growth rates across countries can be explained by differing rates of entrepreneurial activity. Similar strong results have been found at the state and local levels.(Kirzner, 1997) Entrepreneurship and competition fuel creative destruction. Schumpeter summed it up as follows: The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates. (Schumpeter, 1939) Entrepreneurs introduce new products and technologies with an eye toward making themselves better off—the profit motive. New goods and services, new firms, and new industries compete with existing ones in the marketplace, taking customers by offering lower prices, better performance, new features, catchier styling, faster service, more convenient locations, higher status, more aggressive marketing, or more attractive packaging. In another seemingly contradictory aspect of creative destruction, the pursuit of self-interest ignites the progress that makes others better off. (Alm Cox, n.d.) Romer, a leading scholar of Economic Growth, has explained that innovation results from a combination of growth-fostering social institutions and new ideas. Because ideas, unlike objects, can be shared by many at the same time, they greatly increase the speed of technological advancement. Capital, social institutions, and new technology, therefore, do not alone cause growth; they must be combined with the ability and willingness to think and act creatively, which in turn means that innovation, has philosophical and psychological requirements. (Sandefur, n.d.) Novus ordo seclorum, characterized by greater uncertainty, asymmetry, and reliance on knowledge as a factor of production, has increased the importance of small entrepreneurial firms. Acs and Audretsch (2001) conclude that there are significant differences in the importance of small firms regarding innovative activity across sectors. Specifically, they mention computers and process control instruments as industries where new entrepreneurial firms are an important part of the innovation process. This adds to a list of Baldwin and Johnson (1999), who mention the importance of small firms regarding electronics, instruments, medical equipment, steel, and biotechnology. Acs (1996) presents an innovation measure, defined as the total number of innovations per 1000 employees in differe